Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery
Volume 35, Issue 7 , Pages 1281-1297 , July 2009

Blue light–filtering intraocular lenses: Review of potential benefits and side effects

Received 12 November 2008 ,Revised 20 February 2009 ,Accepted 7 April 2009.

References 

  1. Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation. Health Effects From Ultraviolet Radiation. Oxford, UK: National Radiological Protection Board; 2002;13(1). Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1194947340456Accessed April 16, 2009
  2. Wittenberg S. Solar radiation and the eye: a review of knowledge relevant to eye care. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1986;63:676–689
  3. Lerman S. An experimental and clinical evaluation of lens transparency and aging. J Gerontol. 1983;38:293–301Available at: http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/38/3/293Accessed April 16, 2009
  4. Bron AJ, Vrensen GFJM, Koretz J, Maraini G, Harding JJ. The ageing lens. Ophthalmologica. 2000;214:86–104
  5. Dillon J, Zheng L, Merriam JC, Gaillard ER. Transmission spectra of light to the mammalian retina. Photochem Photobiol. 2000;71:225–229
  6. Gaillard ER, Zheng L, Merriam JC, Dillon J. Age-related changes in the absorption characteristics of the primate lens. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:1454–1459Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/41/6/1454.pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  7. Weale RA. Age and the transmittance of the human crystalline lens. J Physiol. 1988;395:577–587Available at: http://jp.physoc.org/cgi/reprint/395/1/577Accessed April 16, 2009
  8. Mellerio J. Yellowing of the human lens: nuclear and cortical contributions. Vision Res. 1987;27:1581–1587
  9. Dillon J, Zheng L, Merriam JC, Gaillard ER. Transmission of light to the aging human retina: possible implications for age related macular degeneration. Exp Eye Res. 2004;79:753–759
  10. Davison JA, Patel AS. Light normalizing intraocular lenses. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2005;45(1):55–106
  11. Mäntyjärvi M, Syrjäkoski J, Tuppurainen K, Honkonen V. Colour vision through intraocular lens. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1997;75:166–169
  12. Ichikawa K, Tamaoki A, Ichikawa H. The color sense of pseudophakic eyes: chromatopsia. In:  Ohta Y editors. Color Vision Deficiencies; Proceedings of the Symposium of the International Research Group in Color Vision Deficiencies, Tokyo, Japan, March 26–28, 1990. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Kugler & Ghedini; 1990;p. 237–243
  13. Noell WK, Walker VS, Kang BS, Berman S. Retinal damage by light in rats. Invest Ophthalmol. 1966;5:450–473Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/5/5/450.pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  14. Ham WT, Ruffolo JJ, Mueller HA, Clarke AM, Moon ME. Histologic analysis of photochemical lesions produced in rhesus retina by short-wavelength light. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1978;17:1029–1035Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/17/10/1029Accessed April 16, 2009
  15. Ham WT, Mueller HA, Sliney DH. Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wavelength light. Nature. 1976;260:153–155
  16. Ham WT, Mueller HA, Ruffolo JJ, Clarke AM. Sensitivity of the retina to radiation damage as a function of wavelength. Photochem Photobiol. 1979;29:735–743
  17. Ham WT, Ruffolo JJ, Mueller HA, Guerry D. The nature of retinal radiation damage: dependence on wavelength, power level and exposure time. Vision Res. 1980;20:1105–1111
  18. Algvere PV, Marshall J, Seregard S. Age-related maculopathy and the impact of blue light hazard. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:4–15
  19. Hao W, Wenzel A, Obin MS, Chen C-K, Brill E, Krasnoperova NV, et al. Evidence for two apoptotic pathways in light-induced retinal degeneration. Nat Genet. 2002;32:254–260
  20. Mainster MA, Ham WT, Delori FC. Potential retinal hazards. Instrument and environmental light sources. Ophthalmology. 1983;90:927–931discussion by T Lawwill, 931–932
  21. Marshall J. The ageing retina: physiology or pathology. Eye. 1987;1:282–295
  22. Braunstein RE, Sparrow JR. A blue-blocking intraocular lens should be used in cataract surgery. [controversies] Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123:547–549
  23. Boulton M, Różanowska M, Różanowski B. Retinal photodamage. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2001;64:144–161
  24. Davies S, Elliott MH, Floor E, Truscott TG, Zareba M, Sarna T, et al. Photocytotoxicity of lipofuscin in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;31:256–265
  25. Bürkle A. Mechanisms of ageing. Eye. 2001;15:371–375
  26. Barja G. Endogenous oxidative stress: relationship to aging, longevity and caloric restriction. Ageing Res Rev. 2002;1:397–411
  27. Liang F-Q, Godley BF. Oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial DNA damage in human retinal pigment epithelial cells: a possible mechanism for RPE aging and age-related macular degeneration. Exp Eye Res. 2003;76:397–403
  28. Winkler BS, Boulton ME, Gottsch JD, Sternberg P. Oxidative damage and age-related macular degeneration. Available at: http://www.molvis.org/molvis/v5/a32/Accessed April 16, 2009
  29. Mainster MA. Intraocular lenses should block UV radiation and violet but not blue light. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123:550–555
  30. Beatty S, Koh H-H, Phil M, Henson D, Boulton M. The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;45:115–134
  31. Young RW. Solar radiation and age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol. 1988;32:252–269
  32. Patel JI. Is cataract surgery a risk factor for progression of macular degeneration?. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2007;18:9–12
  33. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, and beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss; AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:1417–1436
  34. Gottsch JD, Bynoe LA, Harlan JB, Rencs EV, Green WR. Light-induced deposits in Bruch's membrane of protoporphyric mice. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:126–129Available at: http://archopht.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/111/1/126Accessed April 16, 2009
  35. Noell WK. Possible mechanisms of photoreceptor damage by light in mammalian eyes. Vision Res. 1980;20:1163–1171
  36. Margrain TH, Boulton M, Marshall J, Sliney DH. Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration?. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2004;23:523–531
  37. Williams TP, Howell WL. Action spectrum of retinal light-damage in albino rats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1983;24:285–287Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/24/3/285Accessed April 16, 2000
  38. Grimm C, Wenzel A, Hafezi F, Yu S, Redmond TM, Remé CE. Protection of Rpe65-deficient mice identifies rhodopsin as a mediator of light-induced retinal degeneration. [letter] Nat Genet. 2000;25:63–66
  39. Grimm C, Wenzel A, Williams TP, Rol PO, Hafezi F, Remé CE. Rhodopsin-mediated blue-light damage to the rat retina: effect of photoreversal of bleaching. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:497–505Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/42/2/497Accessed April 16, 2009
  40. Remé CE. The dark side of light: rhodopsin and the silent death of vision; the Proctor Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46:2672–2682Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/46/8/2672Accessed April 16, 2009
  41. Lawwill T. Three major pathologic processes caused by light in the primate retina: a search for mechanisms. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1982;80:517–579Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1312279&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  42. Ng K-P, Gugiu BG, Renganathan K, Davies MW, Gu X, Crabb JS, et al. Retinal pigment epithelium lipofuscin proteomics. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2008;7:1397–1405
  43. Feeney-Burns L, Berman ER, Rothman H. Lipofuscin of human retinal pigment epithelium. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90:783–791
  44. Weiter JJ, Delori FC, Wing GL, Fitch KA. Retinal pigment epithelial lipofuscin and melanin and choroidal melanin in human eyes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1986;27:145–152Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/27/2/145Accessed April 16, 2009
  45. Feeney-Burns L, Hilderbrand ES, Eldridge S. Aging human RPE: morphometric analysis of macular, equatorial, and peripheral cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1984;25:195–200Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/195.pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  46. Delori FC, Goger DG, Dorey CK. Age-related accumulation and spatial distribution of lipofuscin in RPE of normal subjects. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:1855–1866Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/42/8/1855Accessed April 16, 2009
  47. Gaillard ER, Atherton SJ, Eldred G, Dillon J. Photophysical studies on human retinal lipofuscin. Photochem Photobiol. 1995;61:448–453
  48. Różanowska M, Jarvis-Evans J, Korytowski W, Boulton ME, Burke JM, Sarna T. Blue light-induced reactivity of retinal age pigment; in vitro generation of oxygen-reactive species. J Biol Chem. 1995;270:18825–18830Available at: http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/270/32/18825Accessed April 16, 2009
  49. Różanowska M, Wessels J, Boulton M, Burke JM, J. Rodgers MA, Truscott TG, Sarna T. Blue light-induced singlet oxygen generation by retinal lipofuscin in non-polar media. Free Radic Biol Med 1998; 24:1107–1112
  50. Boulton M, Dontsov A, Jarvis-Evans J, Ostrovsky M, Svistunenko D. Lipofuscin is a photoinducible free radical generator. J Photochem Photobiol B. 1993;19:201–204
  51. Wihlmark U, Wrigstad A, Roberg K, Nilsson SEG, Brunk UT. Lipofuscin accumulation in cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells causes enhanced sensitivity to blue light irradiation. Free Radic Biol Med. 1997;22:1229–1234
  52. Shamsi FA, Boulton M. Inhibition of RPE lysosomal and antioxidant activity by the age pigment lipofuscin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:3041–3046Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/42/12/3041Accessed April 16, 2009
  53. Lamb LE, Simon JD. A2E: a component of ocular lipofuscin. Photochem Photobiol. 2004;79:127–136
  54. Sparrow JR, Vollmer-Snarr HR, Zhou J, Jang YP, Jockusch S, Itagaki Y, et al. A2E-epoxides damage DNA in retinal pigment epithelial cells; vitamin E and other antioxidants inhibit A2E-epoxide formation. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:18207–18213Available at: http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/278/20/18207Accessed April 16, 2009
  55. Sparrow JR, Zhou J, Cai B. DNA is a target of the photodynamic effects elicited in A2E-laden RPE by blue-light illumination. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44:2245–2251Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/5/2245Accessed April 16, 2009
  56. Sparrow JR, Zhou J, Ben-Shabat S, Vollmer H, Itagaki Y, Nakanishi K. Involvement of oxidative mechanisms in blue-light-induced damage to A2E-laden RPE. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002;43:1222–1227Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/43/4/1222Accessed April 16, 2009
  57. Sparrow JR, Cai B. Blue light-induced apoptosis of A2E-containing RPE: involvement of caspase-3 and protection by Bcl-2. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:1356–1362Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/6/1356Accessed April 16, 2009
  58. Sparrow JR, Nakanishi K, Parish CA. The lipofuscin fluorophore A2E mediates blue light-induced damage to retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:1981–1989Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/41/7/1981Accessed April 16, 2009
  59. Suter M, Remé C, Grimm C, Wenzel A, Jäättela M, Esser P, et al. Age-related macular degeneration. The lipofusion component N-retinyl-N-retinylidene ethanolamine detaches proapoptotic proteins from mitochondria and induces apoptosis in mammalian retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2000;275:39625–39630Available at: http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/275/50/39625Accessed April 16, 2009
  60. Schütt F, Davies S, Kopitz J, Holz FG, Boulton ME. Photodamage to human RPE cells by A2-E, a retinoid component of lipofuscin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:2303–2308Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/41/8/2303Accessed April 16, 2009
  61. Nilsson SEG, Sundelin SP, Wihlmark U, Brunk UT. Aging of cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells: oxidative reactions, lipofuscin formation and blue light damage. Doc Ophthalmol. 2003;106:13–16
  62. Kim SR, Nakanishi K, Itagaki Y, Sparrow JR. Photooxidation of A2-PE, a photoreceptor outer segment fluorophore, and protection by lutein and zeaxanthin. Exp Eye Res. 2006;82:828–839
  63. Sparrow JR, Fishkin N, Zhou J, Cai B, Jang YP, Krane S, et al. A2E, a byproduct of the visual cycle. Vision Res. 2003;43:2983–2990
  64. Sparrow JR, Parish CA, Hashimoto M, Nakanishi K. A2E, a lipofuscin fluorophore, in human retinal pigmented epithelial cells in culture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40:2988–2995Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/40/12/2988Accessed April 16, 2009
  65. Eldred GE, Katz ML. Fluorophores of the human retinal pigment epithelium: separation and spectral characterization. Exp Eye Res. 1988;47:71–86
  66. Holz FG, Bellman C, Staudt S, Schütt F, Völcker HE. Fundus autofluorescence and development of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:1051–1056Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/42/5/1051Accessed April 16, 2009
  67. Sarks JP, Sarks SH, Killingsworth MC. Evolution of geographic atrophy of the retinal pigment epithelium. Eye. 1988;2:552–577
  68. Pautler EL, Morita M, Beezley D. Hemoprotein(s) mediate blue light damage in the retinal pigment epithelium. Photochem Photobiol. 1990;51:599–605
  69. Marshall J. Radiation and the ageing eye. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1985;5:241–263
  70. Wenzel A, Grimm C, Marti A, Kueng-Hitz N, Hafezi F, Niemeyer G, et al. c-fos controls the “private pathway” of light-induced apoptosis of retinal photoreceptors. J Neurosci. 2000;20:81–88Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/reprint/20/1/81Accessed April 16, 2009
  71. Grimm C, Wenzel A, Hafezi F, Remé CE. Gene expression in the mouse retina: the effect of damaging light. Mol Vis. 2000;6:252–260Available at: http://www.molvis.org/molvis/v6/a34/v6a34-grimm.pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  72. Klein R, Klein BEK, Cruickshanks KJ. The prevalence of age-related maculopathy by geographic region and ethnicity. Prog Retin Eye Res. 1999;18:371–389
  73. Schmidt SY, Peisch RD. Melanin concentration in normal human retinal pigment epithelium; regional variation and age-related reduction. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1986;27:1063–1067Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/27/7/1063Accessed April 16, 2009
  74. Mellerio J. Light effects on the retina. In:  Albert DM,  Jakobiec FA editor. Principles and Practice of Ophthalmology. Basic Sciences. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 1994;p. 1326–1345
  75. Fariza E, Castellote M. Clinical light damage by indirect ophthalmoscopy. [letter] N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1505–1507erratum 1994; 330:1320
  76. Gorgels TGMF, van Norren D. Ultraviolet and green light cause different types of damage in rat retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1995;36:851–863Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/36/5/851Accessed April 16, 2009
  77. Koide R, Ueda TN, Dawson WW, Hope GM, Ellis A, Samuelson D, et al. [Retinal hazard from blue light emitting diode]. [Japanese] Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2001;105:687–695
  78. Remé CE, Grimm C, Hafezi F, Wenzel A, Williams TP. Apoptosis in the retina: the silent death of vision. News Physiol Sci. 2000;15:120–125Available at: http://physiologyonline.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/15/3/120Accessed April 16, 2009
  79. van Best JA, Putting BJ, Oosterhuis JA, Zweypfenning RCVJ, Vrensen GFJM. Function and morphology of the retinal pigment epithelium after light-induced damage. Microsc Res Tech. 1997;36:77–88
  80. Beatty S, Boulton M, Henson D, Koh H-H, Murray IJ. Macular pigment and age related macular degeneration. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83:867–877Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1723114&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  81. Robson AG, Harding G, van Kuijk FJGM, Pauleikhoff D, Holder GE, Bird AC, Fitzke FW, D Moreland JD. Comparison of fundus autofluorescence and minimum-motion measurements of macular pigment distribution profiles derived from identical retinal areas. Perception 2005; 34:1029–1034
  82. Handelman GJ, Snodderly DM, Krinsky NI, Russett MD, Adler AJ. Biological control of primate macular pigment; biochemical and densitometric studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1991;32:257–267Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/32/2/257Accessed April 16, 2009
  83. Pease PL, Adams AJ, Nuccio E. Optical density of human macular pigment. Vision Res. 1987;27:705–710
  84. Werner JS, Donnelly SK, Kliegl R. Aging and human macular pigment density; appended with translations from the work of Max Schultze and Ewald Hering. Vision Res. 1987;27:257–268
  85. Mainster MA. Light and macular degeneration: a biophysical and clinical perspective. Eye. 1987;1:304–310
  86. Remé C, Reinboth J, Clausen M, Hafezi F. Light damage revisited: converging evidence, diverging views?. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1996;234:2–11
  87. Hawse P. Blocking the blue. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:939–940
  88. Nilsson SE. Are there advantages in implanting a yellow IOL to reduce the risk of AMD?. [guest editorial] Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2004;82:123–125Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118808587/PDFSTARTAccessed April 16, 2009
  89. Fletcher AE, Bentham GC, Agnew M, Young IS, Augood C, Chakravarthy U, et al. Sunlight exposure, antioxidants, and age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126:1396–1403
  90. Hawkins BS, Bird A, Klein R, West SK. Epidemiology of age-related macular degeneration. Mol Vis. 1999;5:26;Available at: http://www.molvis.org/molvis/v5/a26/v5a26-hawkins.pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  91. Taylor HR, Muñoz B, West S, Bressler NM, Bressler SB, Rosenthal FS. Visible light and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1990;88:163–173discussion, 173–178. Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1298584&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  92. Taylor HR, West S, Muñoz B, Rosenthal FS, Bressler SB, Bressler NM. The long-term effects of visible light on the eye. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:99–104
  93. Tomany SC, Cruickshanks KJ, Klein R, Klein BEK, Knudtson MD. Sunlight and the 10-year incidence of age-related maculopathy; the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122:750–757
  94. Cruickshanks KJ, Klein R, Klein BEK, Nondahl DM. Sunlight and the 5-year incidence of early age-related maculopathy; the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:246–250
  95. Smith W, Assink J, Klein R, Mitchell P, Klaver CCW, Klein BEK, et al. Risk factors for age-related macular degeneration; pooled findings from three continents. Ophthalmology. 2001;108:697–704
  96. Simons K. Artificial light and early-life exposure in age-related macular degeneration and in cataractogenic phototoxicity. [letter] Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:297–298
  97. Blumenkranz MS, Russell SR, Robey MG, Kott-Blumenkranz R, Penneys N. Risk factors in age-related maculopathy complicated by choroidal neovascularization. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:552–557discussion by FL Ferris III, 558
  98. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Risk factors for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1701–1708
  99. Darzins P, Mitchell P, Heller RF. Sun exposure and age-related macular degeneration; an Australian case-control study. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:770–776
  100. McCarty CA, Mukesh BN, Fu CL, Mitchell P, Wang JJ, Taylor HR. Risk factors for age-related maculopathy; the Visual Impairment Project. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:1455–1462
  101. Delcourt C, Carrière I, Ponton-Sanchez A, Fourrey S, Lacroux A, Papoz L. Light exposure and the risk of age-related macular degeneration; the Pathologies Oculaires Liées à l'Age (POLA) study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:1463–1468
  102. Hirvelä H, Luukinen H, Läärä E, Sc L, Laatikainen L. Risk factors of age-related maculopathy in a population 70 years of age or older. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:871–877
  103. Wu J, Seregard S, Algvere PV. Photochemical damage of the retina. Surv Ophthalmol. 2006;51:461–481
  104. Pollack A, Marcovich A, Bukelman A, Oliver M. Age-related macular degeneration after extracapsular cataract extraction with intraocular lens implantation. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:1546–1554
  105. Pollack A, Marcovich A, Bukelman A, Zalish M, Oliver M. Development of exudative age-related macular degeneration after cataract surgery. Eye. 1997;11:523–530
  106. Klein R, Klein BEK, Wong TY, Tomany SC, Cruickshanks KJ. The association of cataract and cataract surgery with the long-term incidence of age-related maculopathy; the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2002;120:1551–1558
  107. Chaine G, Hullo A, Sahel J, Soubrane G, Espinasse-Berrod M, Schutz D, et al. Case-control study of the risk factors for age related macular degeneration; France-DMLA Study Group. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:996–1002Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1722735&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  108. Wang JJ, Klein R, Smith W, Klein BEK, Tomany S, Mitchell P. Cataract surgery and the 5-year incidence of late-stage age-related maculopathy; pooled findings from the Beaver Dam and Blue Mountains Eye Studies. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:1960–1967
  109. Freeman EE, Munoz B, West SK, Tielsch JM, Schein OD. Is there an association between cataract surgery and age-related macular degeneration? Data from three population-based studies. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:849–856
  110. Liu IY, White L, LaCroix AZ. The association of age-related macular degeneration and lens opacities in the aged. Am J Public Health. 1989;79:765–769Available at: http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/79/6/765Accessed April 16, 2009
  111. van der Schaft TL, Mooy CM, de Bruijn WC, Mulder PG, Pameyer JH, de Jong PT. Increased prevalence of disciform macular degeneration after cataract extraction with implantation of an intraocular lens. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:441–445
  112. Baatz H, Darawsha R, Ackermann H, Scharioth GB, de Ortueta D, Pavlidis M, et al. Phacoemulsification does not induce neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:1079–1083Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/49/3/1079Accessed April 16, 2009
  113. Edwards AO, Ritter R, Abel KJ, Manning A, Panhuysen C, Farrer LA. Complement factor H polymorphism and age-related macular degeneration. Science. 2005;308:421–424
  114. Nozaki M, Raisler BJ, Sakurai E, Sarma JV, Barnum SR, Lambris JD, et al. Drusen complement components C3a and C5a promote choroidal neovascularization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:2328–2333Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1413680&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 16, 2009
  115. Yates JRW, Sepp T, Matharu BK, Khan JC, Thurlby DA, Shahid H, et al. Complement C3 variant and the risk of age-related macular degeneration; for the Genetic Factors in AMD Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:553–561
  116. Seddon JM, Reynolds R, Rosner B. Peripheral retinal drusen and reticular pigment: association with CFHY402H and CFHrs1410996 genotypes in family and twin studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50:586–591
  117. Despriet DDG, van Duijn CM, Oostra BA, Uitterlinden AG, Hofman A, Wright AF, et al. Complement component C3 and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:474–480e2
  118. Chappelow AV, Kaiser PK. Neovascular age-related macular degeneration; potential therapies. Drugs. 2008;68:1029–1036
  119. Seddon JM, Gensler G, Milton RC, Klein ML, Rifai N. Association between C-reactive protein and age-related macular degeneration. JAMA. 2004;291:704–710
  120. Zaliuniene D, Paunksnis A, Gustiene O, Brazdzionyte J, Zaliunas R. Pre- and postoperative C-reactive protein levels in patients with cataract and age-related macular degeneration. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2007;17:919–927
  121. Kudo H, Hagiwara S, Saiki K, Hamano K, Ohara F, Hanabusa A, et al. [Tinted lens to facilitate color vision after cataract surgery]. [Japanese] Rinsho Ganka. 1990;44:473–475
  122. Yokoyama Y, Iwamoto H, Yamanaka A. Blue light-filtering foldable acrylic intraocular lens. J Artif Organs. 2006;9:71–76
  123. Brockmann C, Schulz M, Laube T. Transmittance characteristics of ultraviolet and blue-light-filtering intraocular lenses. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2008;34:1161–1166
  124. van Norren D, van de Kraats J. Spectral transmission of intraocular lenses expressed as a virtual age. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:1374–1375
  125. Sliney DH. Spectral transmission of IOLs expressed as a virtual age. [editorial] Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:1261–1262
  126. Ernest PH. Light-transmission-spectrum comparison of foldable intraocular lenses. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2004;30:1755–1758
  127. Mainster MA. Violet and blue light blocking intraocular lenses: photoprotection versus photoreception. [perspective] Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:784–792
  128. Pokorny J, Smith VC. The Verriest Lecture. How much light reaches the retina?. In:  Cavonius CR editors. Colour Vision Deficiencies XIII; Proceedings of the Thirteenth Symposium of the International Research Group on Colour Vision Deficiencies, held in Pau, France July 27-30, 1995. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer; 1997;p. 491–511(Doc Ophthalmol Proc Ser 59)
  129. Nilsson SEG, Textorius O, Andersson B-E, Swenson B. Clear PMMA versus yellow intraocular lens material. An electrophysiologic study on pigmented rabbits regarding “the blue light hazard.”. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1989;314:539–553
  130. Sparrow JR, Miller AS, Zhou J. Blue light-absorbing intraocular lens and retinal pigment epithelium protection in vitro. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2004;30:873–878
  131. Rezai KA, Gasyna E, Seagle B-LL, Norris JR, Rezaei KA. AcrySof Natural filter decreases blue light-induced apoptosis in human retinal pigment epithelium. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:671–676
  132. Miyake K, Ichihashi S, Shibuya Y, Ota I, Miyake S, Terasaki H. Blood–retinal barrier and autofluorescence of the posterior polar retina in long-standing pseudophakia. J Cataract Refract Surg. 1999;25:891–897
  133. Yanagi Y, Inoue Y, Iriyama A, Jang W-D. Effects of yellow intraocular lenses on light-induced upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32:1540–1544
  134. Carson D, Margrain TH, Patel A. New approach to evaluate retinal protection by intraocular lenses against age-related lipofuscin accumulation-mediated retinal phototoxicity. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2008;34:1785–1792
  135. Cionni RJ, Tsai JH. Color perception with AcrySof Natural and AcrySof single-piece intraocular lenses under photopic and mesopic conditions. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32:236–242
  136. Muftuoglu O, Karel F, Duman R. Effect of a yellow intraocular lens on scotopic vision, glare disability, and blue color perception. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2007;33:658–666
  137. Rodríguez-Galietero A, Montés-Micó R, Muñoz G, Albarrán-Diego C. Blue-light filtering intraocular lens in patients with diabetes: contrast sensitivity and chromatic discrimination. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2005;31:2088–2092
  138. Rodríguez -Galietero A, Montés-Micó R, Muñoz G, Albarrán-Diego C. Comparison of contrast sensitivity and color discrimination after clear and yellow intraocular lens implantation. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2005;31:1736–1740
  139. Hayashi K, Hayashi H. Visual function in patients with yellow tinted intraocular lenses compared with vision in patients with non-tinted intraocular lenses. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:1019–1023
  140. Barišić A, Dekaris I, Gabrić N, Bosnar D, Lazić R, Karaman Martinović Ž, et al. Blue light filtering intraocular lenses in phacoemulsification cataract surgery. Coll Antropol. 2007;31(suppl 1):57–60Available at: http://www.collantropol.hr/_doc/Coll.%20Antropol.%2031%20(2007)%20Suppl.%201:%2057-60.pdfAccessed April 17, 2009
  141. Vuori M-L, Mäntyjärvi M. Colour vision and retinal nerve fibre layer photography in patients with an Acrysof® Natural intraocular lens. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:92–94
  142. Landers J, Tan T-H, Yuen J, Liu H. Comparison of visual function following implantation of AcrySof Natural intraocular lenses with conventional intraocular lenses. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;35:152–159
  143. Falkner-Radler CI, Benesch T, Binder S. Blue light-filter intraocular lenses in vitrectomy combined with cataract surgery: results of a randomized controlled clinical trial. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145:499–503
  144. Bhattacharjee H, Bhattacharjee K, Medhi J. Visual performance: comparison of foldable intraocular lenses. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32:451–455
  145. Leibovitch I, Lai T, Porter N, Pietris G, Newland H, Selva D. Visual outcomes with the yellow intraocular lens. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:95–99
  146. Marshall J, Cionni RJ, Davison J, Ernest P, Lehmann R, Maxwell WA, et al. Clinical results of the blue-light filtering AcrySof Natural foldable acrylic intraocular lens. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2005;31:2319–2323
  147. Wohlfart C, Tschuschnig K, Fellner P, Weiss K, Vidic B, El-Shabrawi Y, et al. Visuelle Funktion mit Blaulichtfilter-IOL. [Visual function with blue light filter IOLs]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 2007;224:23–27
  148. Greenstein VC, Chiosi F, Baker P, Seiple W, Holopigian K, Braunstein RE, et al. Scotopic sensitivity and color vision with a blue-light-absorbing intraocular lens. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2007;33:667–672
  149. Raj SM, Vasavada AR, Nanavaty MA. AcrySof Natural SN60AT versus AcrySof SA60AT intraocular lens in patients with color vision defects. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2005;31:2324–2328
  150. Mester U, Holz F, Kohnen T, Lohmann C, Tetz M. Intraindividual comparison of a blue-light filter on visual function: AF-1 (UY) versus AF-1 (UV) intraocular lens. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2008;34:608–615
  151. Espindle D, Crawford B, Maxwell A, Rajagopalan K, Barnes R, Harris B, et al. Quality-of-life improvements in cataract patients with bilateral blue light-filtering intraocular lenses: clinical trial. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2005;31:1952–1959
  152. Shah SA, Miller KM. Explantation of an AcrySof Natural intraocular lens because of a color vision disturbance. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:941–942
  153. Niwa K, Yoshino Y, Okuyama F, Tokoro T. Effects of tinted intraocular lens on contrast sensitivity. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1996;16:297–302
  154. Glazer-Hockstein C, Dunaief JL. Could blue light-blocking lenses decrease the risk of age-related macular degeneration?. [editorial] Retina. 2006;26:1–4
  155. Norren DV, Vos JJ. Spectral transmission of the human ocular media. Vision Res. 1974;14:1237–1244
  156. Griswold MS, Stark WS. Scotopic spectral sensitivity of phakic and aphakic observers extending into the near ultraviolet. Vision Res. 1992;32:1739–1743
  157. Curcio CA. Photoreceptor topography in ageing and age-related maculopathy. Eye. 2001;15:376–383
  158. Sunness JS, Rubin GS, Applegate CA, Bressler NM, Marsh MJ, Hawkins BS, et al. Visual function abnormalities and prognosis in eyes with age-related geographic atrophy of the macula and good visual acuity. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1677–1691
  159. Jackson GR, Owsley C, McGwin G. Aging and dark adaptation. Vision Res. 1999;39:3975–3982
  160. Jackson GR, Owsley C, Curcio CA. Photoreceptor degeneration and dysfunction in aging and age-related maculopathy. Ageing Res Rev. 2002;1:381–396
  161. Jackson GR, Owsley C. Scotopic sensitivity during adulthood. Vision Res. 2000;40:2467–2473
  162. Aarnisalo EA. Effects of yellow filter glasses on the results of photopic and scotopic photometry. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;105:408–411
  163. Schefrin BE, Tregear SJ, Harvey LO, Werner JS. Senescent changes in scotopic contrast sensitivity. Vision Res. 1999;39:3728–3736
  164. Jackson GR, Owsley C, Cordle EP, Finley CD. Aging and scotopic sensitivity. Vision Res. 1998;38:3655–3662
  165. Gunkel RD, Gouras P. Changes in scotopic visibility thresholds with age. Arch Ophthalmol. 1963;69:4–9
  166. McMurdo MET, Gaskell A. Dark adaptation and falls in the elderly. Gerontology. 1991;37:221–224
  167. Curcio CA, Millican CL, Allen KA, Kalina RE. Aging of the human photoreceptor mosaic: evidence for selective vulnerability of rods in central retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1993;34:3278–3296Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/34/12/3278.pdfAccessed April 17, 2009
  168. Curcio CA, Owsley C, Jackson GR. Spare the rods, save the cones in aging and age-related maculopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:2015–2018Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/41/8/2015.pdfAccessed April 17, 2009
  169. Owsley C, Jackson GR, Cideciyan AV, Huang Y, Fine SL, Ho AC, et al. Psychophysical evidence for rod vulnerability in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:267–273Available at: http://www.iovs.org/cgi/reprint/41/1/267.pdfAccessed April 18, 2009
  170. Owsley C, Jackson GR, White M, Feist R, Edwards D. Delays in rod-mediated dark adaptation in early age-related maculopathy. Ophthalmology. 2001;108:1196–1202
  171. Charman WN. Vision and driving – a literature review and commentary. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1997;17:371–391
  172. Klein BEK, Klein R, Lee KE, Cruickshanks KJ. Associations of performance-based and self-reported measures of visual function. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 1999;6:49–60
  173. Owsley C, McGwin G. Vision impairment and driving. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999;43:535–550
  174. Scilley K, Jackson GR, Cideciyan AV, Maguire MG, Jacobson SG, Owsley C. Early age-related maculopathy and self-reported visual difficulty in daily life. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1235–1242
  175. Werner JS. Night vision in the elderly: consequences for seeing through a “blue filtering” intraocular lens. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89:1518–1521
  176. Pons A, Delgado D, Campos J. Determination of the action spectrum of the blue-light hazard for different intraocular lenses. J Opt Soc Am A Opt Image Sci Vis. 2007;24:1545–1550
  177. Mainster MA, Sparrow JR. How much blue light should an IOL transmit?. [perspective] Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:1523–1529
  178. Schwiegerling J. Blue-light-absorbing lenses and their effect on scotopic vision. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32:141–144
  179. Mainster MA. Blue-blocking intraocular lenses and pseudophakic scotopic sensitivity. [letter] J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32:1403–1404reply by J Schwiegerling, 1404–1405; editor's note, 1406
  180. Green CB, Besharse JC. Retinal circadian clocks and control of retinal physiology. J Biol Rhythms. 2004;19:91–102
  181. Hankins MW, Lucas RJ. The primary visual pathway in humans is regulated according to long-term light exposure through the action of a nonclassical photopigment. Curr Biol. 2002;12:191–198Available at: http://download.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/PIIS0960982202006590.pdf?intermediate=trueAccessed April 18, 2008
  182. Li F, Cao W, Anderson RE. Protection of photoreceptor cells in adult rats from light-induced degeneration by adaptation to bright cyclic light. Exp Eye Res. 2001;73:569–577
  183. Tosini G, Fukuhara C. The mammalian retina as a clock. Cell Tissue Res. 2002;309:119–126
  184. Hankins MW, Peirson SN, Foster RG. Melanopsin: an exciting photopigment. Trends Neurosci. 2008;31:27–36
  185. Foster RG, Hankins MW. Circadian vision. Curr Biol. 2007;17:R746–R751
  186. Wyszecki G, Stiles WS. Color Science; Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae, 2nd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1982;
  187. Govardovskii VI, Fyhrquist N, Reuter T, Kuzmin DG, Donner K. In search of the visual pigment template. Vis Neurosci. 2000;17:509–528
  188. Hattar S, Lucas RJ, Mrosovsky N, Thompson S, Douglas RH, Hankins MW, et al. Melanopsin and rod-cone photoreceptive systems account for all major accessory visual functions in mice. [letter] Nature. 2003;424:76–81
  189. Dacey DM, Liao H-W, Peterson BB, Robinson FR, Smith VC, Pokorny J, et al. Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal colour and irradiance and project to the LGN. [letter] Nature. 2005;433:749–754
  190. Zaidi FH, Hull JT, Peirson SN, Wulff K, Aeschbach D, Gooley JJ, et al. Short-wavelength light sensitivity of circadian, pupillary, and visual awareness in humans lacking an outer retina. Curr Biol. 2007;17:2122–2128Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2151130&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 18, 2008
  191. Hankins MW, Foster RG. A novel light sensing pathway in the eye: conserved features of inner retinal photoreception in rodents, man and teleost fish. In:  Briggs WR,  Spudich JL editor. Handbook of Photosensory Receptors. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH; 2005;p. 93–119
  192. Ruby NF, Brennan TJ, Xie X, Cao V, Franken P, Heller HC, et al. Role of melanopsin in circadian responses to light. Science. 2002;298:2211–2213
  193. Panda S, Sato TK, Castrucci AM, Rollag MD, DeGrip WJ, Hogenesch JB, et al. Melanopsin (Opn4) requirement for normal light-induced circadian phase shifting. Science. 2002;298:2213–2216
  194. Lucas RJ, Hattar S, Takao M, Berson DM, Foster RG, Yau KW. Diminished pupillary light reflex at high irradiances in melanopsin-knockout mice. Science. 2003;299:245–247
  195. Mrosovsky N. Contribution of classic photoreceptors to entrainment. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol. 2003;189:69–73
  196. Belenky MA, Smeraski CA, Provencio I, Sollars PJ, Pickard GE. Melanopsin retinal ganglion cells receive bipolar and amacrine cell synapses. J Comp Neurol. 2003;460:380–393
  197. Thompson S, Foster RG, Stone EM, Sheffield VC, Mrosovsky N. Classical and melanopsin photoreception in irradiance detection: negative masking of locomotor activity by light. Eur J Neurosci. 2008;27:1973–1979
  198. Brainard GC, Sliney D, Hanifin JP, Glickman G, Byrne B, Greeson JM, et al. Sensitivity of the human circadian system to short-wavelength (420-nm) light. J Biol Rhythms. 2008;23:379–386
  199. Dkhissi-Benyahya O, Gronfier C, De Vanssay W, Flamant F, Cooper HM. Modeling the role of mid-wavelength cones in circadian responses to light. Neuron. 2007;53:677–687Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1950159&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 18, 2009
  200. Thapan K, Arendt J, Skene DJ. An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans. J Physiol (Lond). 2001;535:261–267Available at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2278766&blobtype=pdfAccessed April 18, 2009
  201. Paul MA, Miller JC, Gray G, Buick F, Blazeski S, Arendt J. Circadian phase delay induced by phototherapeutic devices. Aviat Space Environ Med. 2007;78:645–652
  202. Zeitzer JM, Dijk D-J, Kronauer RE, Brown EN, Czeisler CA. Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting and suppression. J Physiol. 2000;526:695–702
  203. Lewy AJ, Wehr TA, Goodwin FK, Newsome DA, Markey SP. Light suppresses melatonin secretion in humans. Science. 1980;210:1267–1269
  204. Boyce P, Kennaway DJ. Effects of light on melatonin production. Biol Psychiatry. 1987;22:473–478
  205. McIntyre IM, Norman TR, Burrows GD, Armstrong SM. Human melatonin suppression by light is intensity dependent. J Pineal Res. 1989;6:149–156
  206. Middleton B, Stone BM, Arendt J. Human circadian phase in 12:12 h, 200: <8 lux and 1000: <8 lux light-dark cycles, without scheduled sleep or activity. Neurosci Lett. 2002;329:41–44
  207. Dijk D-J, Neri DF, Wyatt JK, Ronda JM, Riel E, Ritz-De Cecco A, et al. Sleep, performance, circadian rhythms, and light-dark cycles during two space shuttle flights. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;281:R1647–R1664Available at: http://ajpregu.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/281/5/R1647Accessed April 18, 2009
  208. Turner PL, Mainster MA. Circadian photoreception: ageing and the eye's important role in systemic health. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92:1439–1444
  209. Brainard GC, Hanifin JP, Rollag MD, Greeson J, Byrne B, Glickman G, et al. Human melatonin regulation is not mediated by the three cone photopic visual system. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:433–436Available at: http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/1/433Accessed April 18, 2009
  210. Lack LC, Wright HR. Clinical management of delayed sleep phase disorder. Behav Sleep Med. 2007;5:57–76
  211. Hofman MA, Swaab DF. Living by the clock: the circadian pacemaker in older people. Ageing Res Rev. 2006;5:33–51Available at: http://cfx-jrs.ap-hop-paris.fr/geronto/cours/bibliographie/Livingbytheclock2006.pdfAccessed April 18, 2009
  212. Foster RG, Wulff K. The rhythm of rest and excess. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005;6:407–414
  213. Van Someren EJW, Riemersma RF, Swaab DF. Functional plasticity of the circadian timing system in old age: light exposure. Prog Brain Res. 2002;138:205–231
  214. Van Someren EJW, Swaab DF, Colenda CC, Cohen W, McCall WV, Rosenquist PB. Bright light therapy: improved sensitivity to its effects on rest-activity rhythms in Alzheimer patients by application of nonparametric methods. Chronobiol Int. 1999;16:505–518
  215. Riemersma-van der Lek RF, Swaab DF, Twisk J, Hol EM, Hoogendijk WJ, Van Someren EJ. Effect of bright light and melatonin on cognitive and noncognitive function in elderly residents of group care facilities; a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;299:2642–2655Available at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/299/22/2642?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=40&resourcetype=HWFIGAccessed April 18, 2009
  216. Asplund R, Ejdervik Lindblad B. The development of sleep in persons undergoing cataract surgery. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2002;35:179–187
  217. Asplund R, Ejdervik Lindblad B. Sleep and sleepiness 1 and 9 months after cataract surgery. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2004;38:69–75
  218. Sloane PD, Williams CS, Mitchell CM, Preisser JS, Wood W, Barrick AL, et al. High-intensity environmental light in dementia: effect on sleep and activity. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55:1524–1533
  219. Shochat T, Martin J, Marler M, Ancoli-Israel S. Illumination levels in nursing home patients: effects on sleep and activity rhythms. J Sleep Res. 2000;9:373–379Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/120714155/PDFSTARTAccessed April 18, 2009
  220. Charman WN. Age, lens transmittance, and the possible effects of light on melatonin suppression. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2003;23:181–187
  221. Burns ER. Biological time and in vivo research: a field guide to pitfalls. Anat Rec. 2000;261:141–152Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/72515480/PDFSTARTAccessed April 18, 2009
  222. Augustin AJ. The physiology of scotopic vision, contrast vision, color vision, and circadian rhythmicity. Can these parameters be influenced by blue-light-filter lenses?. Retina. 2008;28:1179–1187
  223. Meyers SM, Ostrovsky MA, Bonner RF. A model of spectral filtering to reduce photochemical damage in age-related macular degeneration. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2004;102:83–93discussion 93–95. Available at: http://www.aosonline.org/xactions/2004/1545-6110_v102_p083.pdfAccessed April 18, 2009
  224. Nations United. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. World Population Projections to 2150. New York, NY: United Nations; 1998;

 No author has a financial or proprietary interest in any material or method mentioned.

 Funded in part by NIHR Biomedical Research Centre Programme, Oxford, United Kingdom, and the Wellcome Trust (UK) Programme Grant 069714, and by a bursary from the Nuffield Laboratory of Ophthalmology, University of Oxford (Dr. Cuthbertson), United Kingdom.

 A.J. Bron, FRCOphth, provided valuable comments.

PII: S0886-3350(09)00375-7

doi: 10.1016/j.jcrs.2009.04.017

Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery
Volume 35, Issue 7 , Pages 1281-1297 , July 2009